Notes for Groups Frame

<body stylesrc="Notes_for_Groups_No_Frames.html" background="../../../images/scarletback.gif" bgcolor="#FFFFCC" text="#000000" link="#FFFFFF" vlink="#FFFFFF" alink="#FFFFFF">  <div align="left"> <table border="0"> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="115" height="95%"> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><font color="#FFFFFF" size="4" face="Arial"><strong>CONTENTS</strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><a href="#Top"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong>TOP</strong></font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><a href="#GROUPS"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong>GROUPS</strong></font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><a href="#GROUP DEVELOPMENT"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong>DEVELOPMENT</strong></font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><a href="#GROUP PROCESSES"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong>PROCESSES</strong></font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><a href="#GROUP PARTICIPATION"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong>PARTICPATION</strong></font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><a href="#EVALUATING GROUP ACTIVITIES"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong>EVALUATING</strong></font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><a href="#GRADING OF GROUP ACTIVITES"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong>GRADING</strong></font></a></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><font size="1" face="Arial"><strong> <a target="_parent" href="../AIS06.html#copyright">COPYRIGHT NOTICE</a></strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><font size="3" face="Arial"><strong> <a target="_parent" href="../AIS06.html#Notes on Group Work">BACK</a></strong></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" align="top" width="110" height="10"></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><font color="#FFFFFF" size="2"><em>Last updated</em></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="right" valign="top" width="115"><font color="#FFFFFF" size="2"><em> 09/03/06</em></font></td> </tr> </table> </td> <td valign="top" width="15"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" width="15" height="1"></td> <td valign="top" width="450"><p align="center"><img src="../../../images/rutgers.gif" alt="Rutgers" width="152" height="53"><br> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" width="300" height="1"></p> <h1 align="center"><a name="Top"><font color="#000099">Working In Teams</font></a></h1> <h2 align="center">33:010:458<br> <font size="6">Accounting Information Systems</font><br> Fall 2006<br> </h2> <div align="left"> <table border="0" cellpadding="3"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="10" width="1" height="1"></td> <td valign="top" colspan="3"> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Accounting professionals and the Accounting Education Change Commission agree that communication skills are an essential ingredient for successful accounting careers. Communication skills take many forms, including writing skills and the ability to express ideas clearly and persuasively in one-on-one situations. This semester, however, we shall be focusing on two important aspects of communication skills: the ability to operate effectively as part of a team, and formal presentations.<br> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="10" width="1" height="1">Working on class activities in groups should ultimately lead to better solutions being produced (many heads being better than one), to larger problems and issues being tackled than individuals alone could be expected to address given class time constraints (assuming an appropriate division of labor), and to opportunities to play to the strengths of individuals rather than their weaknesses (the hallmark of effective executives). These benefits obviously emulate those anticipated from teamwork in the workplace. In addition, however, working in groups has been found to be an effective learning vehicle. We will therefore work in groups in order to gain the learning advantages; additionally, we will actively study the processes of working in groups, in order to learn to become better team players.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"><a name="GROUPS"><b><font size="4" face="Arial">GROUPS</font></b></a><font size="4"><b><br> </b></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Group activities are a central feature of human social and work behavior. Membership in groups, temporary and permanent, large and small, is characteristic of most of life’s experiences. In recent times, group processes and the development of skills to manage and participate in them have assumed new importance. There are many different kinds of groups. Meetings and committees are examples of short-lived information-exchanging groups. In the workplace, groups large and small exist to perform tasks. In smaller work teams, work satisfaction may be high, and participation in the group may be attractive to members. One problem with such groups is that they may be resistant to changes in work practices. In management, research and learning environments, problem-solving and creative groups may be used. At work and elsewhere, informal groupings may be created. We are primarily interested in problem-solving groups.<br> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="10" width="1" height="1">A group may be said to exist as more than a mere collection of people when it possesses:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">collective perception<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">needs<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">shared aims<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">interdependence<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">social organization<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">interaction<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">cohesiveness<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">membership.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Groups need to regulate their boundaries; i.e., to manage their relationships with other groups. They need to maintain and develop their required inputs (e.g., information, new members) and outputs (e.g., products, services, solutions to problems). They also need to control their activities and to integrate them. In successful problem-solving groups we expect to find a high degree of integration of activities in conjunction with permissive, non-directive, control.<br> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="10" width="1" height="1"> Research into group behavior suggests that the following group properties may be of interest:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">background<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">participation pattern<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">communication<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">cohesion<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">atmosphere<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">norms<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">sociometric pattern<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">structure and organization<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">procedures<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">goals.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"><a name="GROUP DEVELOPMENT"><b><font size="4" face="Arial">GROUP DEVELOPMENT</font></b></a><font size="4"><b><br> </b></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">In the work situation, as in the classroom environment, groups are not normally created on the basis of personal choice or democracy. Many factors including task requirements, skills, time constraints, economic and political forces, influence the formation of problem-solving groups. The individuals assigned to work in a group face the challenge of learning to work successfully together as a team. Many researchers have studied the different phases of group development. One such analysis (Tuckman and Jensen 1977) suggests that groups pass through the following five stages, which help shape subsequent group character:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="2"> </td> <td valign="top">FORMING</td> <td valign="top">characterized by silences, anxiety, dependence on a leader, concern for structure, task requirements and methods<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="2"> </td> <td valign="top">STORMING</td> <td valign="top">noisy, searching and comparing ideas, emotional resistance to task demands, more self-oriented independent behaviors, possible rebellion against the initial leader, creation of sub-groups, information generation, opinion seeking, and development of early pairings and relationships<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="2"> </td> <td valign="top">NORMING</td> <td valign="top">re-emergence of task demands, more open exchange of ideas and views, more listening and co-operation, rules of conduct, group identity, group cohesion, individual roles and decision-making processes<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="2"> </td> <td valign="top">PERFORMING</td> <td valign="top">settled interdependence and problem solving, energy directed at task requirements<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="2"> </td> <td valign="top">ADJOURNING</td> <td valign="top">when the task is completed.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"><a name="GROUP PROCESSES"><b><font size="4" face="Arial">GROUP PROCESSES</font></b></a><font size="4"><b><br> </b></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Researchers have argued that the higher the quality of interdependence required (i.e, in groups such as problem-solving groups with permissive controls and high integration), the more necessary it is for groups to spend time in the "storming" and "norming" phases, and indeed to revisit them when "performing" becomes sub-standard. Groups often rush into task performance as a way of avoiding the anxiety associated with the newness of their group or the diversity of individual opinions. Teams are more likely to succeed, however, if they put aside some group time to examine, discuss and develop their group processes. This can be done in many ways, e.g.:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">ask individual members to say what their feelings are towards the group and its task<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">ask individuals to say what they would like the group to do more of and less of<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">ask another group to watch the group function and provide feedback.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Perhaps the most important thing is for group members to be aware of the operation of group processes as group discussions progress, and to review the effectiveness of group processes regularly. Particular attention should be paid to:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">how ideas are generated and evaluated<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">how tasks are apportioned and delegated<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">how decisions are reached<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">how conflicts are identified and resolved.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Although successful completion of tasks is important, attention should also be paid to morale and the feelings of individual members towards the group, its tasks, and other members.<br> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="10" width="1" height="1">Cohesive, interdependent, high morale groups have their own potential weaknesses, sometimes referred to as "group think". These include:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the illusion of invulnerability<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">shared stereotypes<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">rationalization<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the illusion of morality<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">self-censorship<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">direct pressure on individuals to conform or agree<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the illusion of unanimity based on silent consent<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">filtering out or eliminating threatening information.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Group processes may be examined through such questions as:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">How does the group determine its tasks or agenda?<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">How does it make decisions?<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">How does it discover and make use of the resources of its members?<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">How does it co-ordinate its various members, sub-groups and activities?<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">How does it evaluate its work?<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Participation in group processes may be classified into:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">group-building and maintenance roles<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">group task roles.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Participation is examined in more detail in the section below.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"><a name="GROUP PARTICIPATION"><b><font size="4" face="Arial">GROUP PARTICIPATION</font></b></a><font size="4"><b><br> </b></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Individual members may participate in group discussions in a number of positive ways:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">seeking ideas through open questions<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">seeking clarification of a prior contribution<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">seeking reactions to a proposal or suggestion<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">suggesting ideas in the form of a question<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">seeking other information<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">proposing ideas in the form of a statement<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">building on ideas already tabled by further proposing, suggesting or integrating<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">consensus testing<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">supporting previous contributions and being encouraging<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">standard setting to help the group achieve goals<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">stating difficulties<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">disagreeing or criticizing<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">summarizing, clarifying, explaining or repeating<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">gatekeeping by seeing that everyone has the opportunity to speak<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">expressing group feelings<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">releasing tension.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Of course, there are negative forms of participation, too, including:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">interrupting (cutting in or speaking over someone else)<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">dominating<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">manipulating<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">blocking<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">belittling<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">distracting<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">splitting<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">excluding.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">It is often helpful to have someone actively monitor group discussions for a period of time and provide feedback on the extent to which each group member is engaging in these various participative behaviors.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"><a name="EVALUATING GROUP ACTIVITIES"><b><font size="4" face="Arial">EVALUATING GROUP ACTIVITIES</font></b></a><font size="4"><b><br> </b></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">At the conclusion of each group session, it may be helpful to consider whether:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">members of the group have agreed upon and understood the specific goals for the group<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">members of the group have agreed upon and understood the ground rules for the group activity<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group has responded to the feelings or moods expressed by its members<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group has listened to and responded to members’ ideas and comments and expressed recognition of contributions<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">all members of the group have been involved and have participated in the discussion<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the atmosphere of the group has been friendly and open, encouraging members to express criticisms or ask questions that expose themselves<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group has confronted any members who were hindering the group in achieving its tasks<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group has been able to discuss areas of differences between members such that it has neither avoided conflict nor allowed the discussion to become destructive<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group has evaluated its progress toward its goals during and at the close of the session<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">at the end of the session the group has decided on its specific task and work required to be done for the next session<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group leader (if there has been one) encouraged discussion before presenting ideas<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group leader has synthesized related ideas and summarized concepts that the group has been discussing<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group leader has determined whether all group members have reached agreement about a particular point or are ready to move onto something else<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">the group leader did not dominate nor did the group defer unduly to the leader’s recognition of contributions.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"> <img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" hspace="1" vspace="10" width="1" height="1"><br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4"><a name="GRADING OF GROUP ACTIVITES"><b><font size="4" face="Arial">GRADING OF GROUP ACTIVITIES</font></b></a><font size="4"><b><br> </b></font></td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" colspan="4">Group activities will be graded by the instructor, based on the work product of the group, taking into account peer evaluations by group members of the performance of all member of the group. Peer evaluations will address:<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">attendance<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">participation in discussions<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">attitude towards the group and its tasks<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">contribution towards the group’s workload and task performance<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3">compliance with the group’s own code of conduct.<br> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> </td> <td valign="top" colspan="3"> </td> </tr> </table> </div> </td> <td valign="top" width="5" height="23"><img src="../../../images/dot_clear.gif" width="5" height="1"></td> </tr> </table> </div>  </body>